Paratethys had a whale. Cetotherium riabinini, 3 meters (10 feet) long, living entirely in landlocked brackish water far from any ocean. The lineage this animal belonged to would eventually produce some of the largest creatures that ever lived — but not here. This branch had been isolated for millions of years and had its own trajectory. Seals shared the water with it. On the surrounding wetlands and shoreline, Deinotherium giganteum moved through the vegetation, a prehistoric elephant larger than anything alive today, its tusks pointing downward rather than forward.

Around 9.6 million years ago a dry period set in, stayed for an exceptionally long time, and pulled water levels down 150 meters (490 feet). The lake split. The central basin, roughly where the Black Sea sits now, turned hypersaline as the water concentrated. The outer zones swung toward fresh water. These animals had spent millions of years shaped by Paratethys’s specific chemistry, and the lake they now lived in had become something foreign to them. Most didn’t make it through. Eventually wetter years returned, the water came back, and whatever had scraped through spread back out. Then another dry period hit. Then a third.

That played out three times across roughly two million years. Each time the lake recovered it recovered a bit less completely. Then between 7.9 and 7.65 million years ago came the worst of them. Water dropped 250 meters (820 feet), whatever was left turned hypersaline and toxic, and most of what had scraped through the earlier crashes didn’t get through this one. Wout Krijgsman of Utrecht University, one of the co-authors, reached for a film reference when describing what that landscape must have looked like: “a postapocalyptic prehistoric world, an aquatic version of the wastelands from Mad Max.”

After a wetter period around 6.7 million years ago opened a connection through the Aegean Sea, Paratethys drained away into what we now call the Caspian, the Black Sea, and the Aral Sea. Palcu’s team found that the worst periods in Paratethys’s history coincided with droughts in Arabia and forests disappearing from Spain.

Some of Paratethys’s mollusks survived everything the lake went through and were still living around the Caspian when Soviet engineers connected the Volga and Don rivers by canal in the 1950s. They caught rides on ships, eventually reaching the Great Lakes of North America, where native species have largely been pushed out. An ancient lake collapse, a Soviet canal, a biological crisis in Canada. Twelve million years apart, but connected.

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To get a visual sense of this lost world, digital artist Carl-August W. created a beautiful reconstruction called “Jurassic Europe”. It’s not just some artistic guesswork—he based the map on real paleogeographic data, including sea levels and tectonic plate positions reconstructed by geologists and paleontologists. The result feels both artistic and believable, like a satellite snapshot from the Mesozoic Era.

So what did Europe actually look like back then?

The short answer is: not much like today. During the Late Jurassic, Europe wasn’t a solid chunk of land. It looked more like a scattered necklace of islands floating in a warm, shallow sea. The Atlantic Ocean was just beginning to open up, and the landmasses we know now—France, Germany, Spain—were still shifting around, slowly drifting to their modern spots. If you showed a present-day European a map of their continent from 150 million years ago, they’d probably just squint and say, “That’s not Europe.”

The climate was hot and humid—think Florida in July, but all year round. CO₂ levels were much higher than today, which meant fewer ice caps and more steamy coastal lowlands. Europe’s forests were full of ferns, cycads, and early conifers. Flowering plants hadn’t shown up yet.

And the animals? They were wild. Literally.

You had enormous sauropods like Brachiosaurus munching on treetops, along with meat-eaters like Allosaurus stalking prey on land. In the skies, early feathered dinosaurs like Archaeopteryx flapped awkwardly from branch to branch. The surrounding seas weren’t empty either—marine reptiles like plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs were cruising the waters, along with schools of ammonites and other shelled creatures that now live on as fossils in places like the Jurassic Coast in southern England.

What’s cool about Carl-August W.’s map is that it helps you picture all this. Not as a vague theory or a sentence in a textbook, but as a real, almost tangible place. You can almost see where the herds might have grazed, which parts were under water, and where dinosaurs may have left footprints in the mud.

It’s always a little mind-bending to think that the ground we stand on today was once sea, or that places we now consider “landlocked” were once tropical lagoons. But that’s what makes looking at these kinds of reconstructions so fascinating—they remind us how temporary the current shape of the world really is.

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It’s hard to imagine now that once upon a time that the Scottish Highlands, the Appalachians, the Ouachita Mountains, and the Little Atlas of Morocco are the same mountain range, once connected as the Central Pangean Mountains.

During the Permian period, the Central Pangean were subjected to significant physical weathering, decreasing the peaks and forming many deep intermontane plains. By the Middle Triassic, the mountain sierras had been considerably reduced in size. By the beginning of the Jurassic period (200 mln years ago), the Pangean chain in Western Europe disappeared to some highland regions separated by deep marine basins.

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Reddit user dontfearme22 made a map of speculative reconstruction of this lost world.

The humid African period started to a widespread settlement of the Sahara and the Arabian Deserts and profoundly influenced African cultures, such as the origin of the Pharaonic civilization.

The humid African period ended about five thousand years ago during the Piora Oscillation cold period. At the same time, some data pointed to an end 5.5 thousand years ago, in the Sahel, Arabia, and East Africa.

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The exact magnitude of the sea level decrease varied throughout the Ice Age, as it went through periods of fluctuation due to changes in ice volume. However, it is estimated that at the Last Glacial Maximum, which occurred approximately 21,000 years ago, the sea level was about 120 meters (394 feet) lower than present-day levels.

This lowered sea level exposed vast areas of the continental shelf, creating land bridges between various regions. For instance, the North Sea was primarily dry land during this time, and the British Isles were connected to the European mainland. The exposed land allowed humans and animals to migrate across these land bridges, contributing to the peopling of Europe.

Erratic boulders, till, drumlins, eskers, fjords, kettle lakes, moraines, etc., are typical features left behind by glaciers that make it possible to reconstruct the ice coverage during the last Ice Age.

Many of today’s countries were entirely covered by thick ice sheets for thousands of years. These countries include Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The big Scandinavian and British ice sheet extended south as far as northern Poland and Germany, covering almost all of Denmark. At the same time, in the eastern regions, the ice spread into the territory of Russia (about 300km west from Moscow) and some northern parts of Belarus. In the west, ice covered almost the entire British Isles, leaving just a relatively small ice-free zone in the south of the United Kingdom.

Today, about three-quarters of all the world’s freshwater (14,9 million km2) is stored in glaciers, while during the last Ice Age, it was about 3 times more (44,4 Million km3).

The climate of Europe during the Ice Age

The presence of the ice sheets altered the atmospheric circulation patterns. Cold air masses originating from the polar regions moved southward, leading to the dominance of arctic and polar air in Europe. This resulted in harsh winters and cooler temperatures throughout the year.

Precipitation patterns also changed during the Ice Age. The presence of ice sheets altered the moisture transport and affected precipitation distribution. In general, Europe experienced drier conditions compared to the present, as much of the available moisture was locked up in ice. However, in areas where moist air masses interacted with the topography, precipitation could occur, leading to the formation of glaciers and the development of large icefields in mountainous regions.

The climate variability during the Ice Age was also influenced by periodic shifts in global climate patterns known as Dansgaard-Oeschger events and Heinrich events. These events involved rapid climate changes, with alternating cold and relatively warmer periods occurring over a span of decades to centuries

The vegetation of Europe during the Ice Age

During the Ice Age, the vegetation of Europe underwent significant changes due to the colder climate and the presence of extensive ice sheets and glaciers. The distribution of plant communities was strongly influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture availability, soil conditions, and the presence of ice cover.

In general, the vegetation of Ice Age Europe was characterized by a dominance of cold-adapted plant species and the prevalence of tundra, steppe, and boreal forest ecosystems.

The northernmost parts of Europe were covered by tundra, a treeless landscape with low-growing vegetation adapted to cold and harsh conditions. Tundra vegetation consisted of grasses, mosses, lichens, and hardy flowering plants, like Arctic poppies and saxifrages.

Steppes, which are grassy plains with sparse tree cover, occurred in regions that were drier compared to the tundra. These grasslands supported grass species such as feather grass and various herbs. The steppe vegetation was more prevalent in eastern and southeastern Europe.

The boreal forest, also known as taiga, covered extensive areas of northern Europe. Dominated by coniferous trees like spruce, pine, and fir, the boreal forest was adapted to the colder and drier conditions. Understory vegetation included mosses, lichens, and shrubs like bilberries and lingonberries.

In regions with milder climates and more favorable conditions, deciduous trees like oak, birch, and elm were present. These woodlands and forests occurred in areas such as central Europe, where the climate was not as severe.

Along the river valleys, which provided milder microclimates and better moisture availability, there were gallery forests characterized by trees like willows, alders, and poplars.

The map below shows Ice Age biomes.

During the Ice Age, human populations in Europe lived as hunter-gatherers, adapting to challenging environmental conditions. The source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover. They migrated in search of food, following the movements of animals and utilizing available resources. They relied on hunting large mammals like mammoths, reindeer, and bison, as well as gathering plant materials such as berries and nuts. They built temporary shelters, used tools made from stone and bone, and created art and personal adornments, as evidenced by cave paintings and carved figurines found in archaeological sites.

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During periods of the lower sea levels associated with the Ice Age, Sundaland was a vast expanse of land connecting the present-day islands of Southeast Asia. The landmass extended across the Sunda Shelf, which is the continental shelf in the region. It formed a continuous land bridge that allowed for the migration of plants, animals, and human populations between islands.

Sundaland was home to a diverse range of ecosystems, including tropical rainforests, swamps, river systems, and grasslands. It supported a rich array of plant and animal species, including unique flora and fauna that adapted to the specific environments found within the region.

One notable aspect of Sundaland is its significance in human history. The landmass provided a pathway for early human migration and the movement of different human populations in and out of the region. The migration and interactions of humans in Sundaland played a crucial role in shaping the cultural and genetic diversity of Southeast Asia.

As the Ice Age came to an end and sea levels rose with the melting of ice sheets, Sundaland gradually became submerged, resulting in the formation of the islands we see today. The process of submergence occurred over thousands of years, and the final stages likely took place around 8,000 to 6,000 years ago. The map below illustrates this process.

The term “Sundaland” is derived from the name “Sunda,” which refers to the Sunda Shelf and the Sunda Islands, including Sumatra, Java, and Bali. The concept of Sundaland helps us understand the geological and ecological history of the region and sheds light on the interconnectedness of the islands and the shared heritage of the people in Southeast Asia.

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During the Ice Age, sea levels were much lower than they are today. This was due to the large volume of water that was locked up in ice sheets and glaciers, causing the ocean levels to drop. As a result, the exposed continental shelf extended much farther offshore than it does now, with some areas as much as hundreds of kilometers away from the current coastline.

In terms of specific features, there were several significant changes. For instance, the Bering Land Bridge, also known as Beringia, connected the eastern tip of Siberia to western Alaska. This land bridge allowed humans and various animal species to migrate between Asia and North America.

In the eastern part of North America, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered much of what is now Canada and parts of the northern United States. This massive ice sheet extended over the region and had a flattening effect on the landscape. Glacial lobes, ice streams, and meltwater channels carved out fjords, lakes, and other distinctive features along the coastline.

The western coast of North America was also impacted by the Ice Age, although not as extensively as the eastern coast. Glaciers in the coastal mountains of Alaska and British Columbia formed fjords and carved deep valleys. In some areas, glaciers advanced far enough to reach the current coastline, shaping the rugged terrain we see today.

It’s important to note that the specific details of the Ice Age coastline varied over time as the ice sheets advanced and retreated in response to climate fluctuations. The coastline continued to change as the ice melted and sea levels gradually rose, eventually shaping the familiar coastlines we observe today.

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 Find the answers with EarthViewer, an interactive tool for exploring the science of Earth’s deep history. From molten mass to snowball earth, EarthViewer lets you see continents grow and shift as you scroll through billions of years. Additional layers let you and your students explore changes in atmospheric composition, temperature, biodiversity, day length, and solar luminosity over deep time.

Online Version
Downloadable Version (PC, Mac-64, Mac-32, Apps)

See also:
– What did Earth look like 600 million years ago?

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The North Sea covers what used to be solid ground linking Britain and continental Europe. Doggerland gets its name from Dogger Bank, shallow fishing grounds where Dutch cod boats worked for centuries. The fishermen never knew they were trawling above a submerged world.

Twenty thousand years ago, at the height of the last ice age, ice sheets held so much water that oceans sat 120 meters (394 ft) lower than today. The continental shelf connecting Britain and Europe emerged as dry land. And it was huge—roughly the same size as England.

A Place People Called Home

Around 12,000 years ago, as the climate warmed, the frozen landscape began transforming. Forests grew. Rivers appeared. Marshes spread through low-lying areas. Deer, wild boar, and aurochs found new habitat, with Mesolithic hunters right behind them.

These groups stayed. They set up camps and returned annually. Fish swam in the rivers. Game roamed the forests. Berries and nuts ripened every summer. Parents raised children there who grew up and did the same.

The seafloor still holds evidence. In 1931, fishermen brought up something unusual: a barbed spear tip made from deer antler. It turned out to be 13,000 years old. Trawlers have since brought up stone tools, flint blades, mammoth bones, all kinds of artifacts. The footprints, though—those really get you. Perfectly preserved in sediment. One location has 39 prints on the seabed. Someone walked through that mud 8,000 years ago, probably checking traps or tracking animals, and those impressions survived their entire civilization.

Divers today can go 20 meters down and see where they walked.

The Slow Drowning

Doggerland began to disappear slowly. Ice sheets across northern Europe melted. Water poured back into the oceans. Shorelines crept forward 1 to 2 meters (3.3-6.6 ft) per century. A human lifetime wouldn’t register much change, but generations watched it happen. By 9000 BCE, the ocean had carved through, forming a huge tidal bay between England and Dogger Bank. The continuous landmass fractured into islands.

Families kept moving inland. Camps relocated. Hunting grounds shifted. The ocean never stopped advancing. In total, waters rose about 120 meters (394 ft) — taller than the Statue of Liberty. The people living through this couldn’t understand why it was happening. They had no way to track melting glaciers or measure ocean levels. They just watched their territory shrink.

Then disaster. Around 6200 BCE, part of the Norwegian seafloor gave way. The Storegga Slide sent roughly 3,500 cubic kilometers (840 cu mi) of sediment crashing into the ocean depths. The tsunami hit Norway at 10 meters (33 ft). When waves hit Doggerland’s remaining islands, they’d dropped to 3-6 meters (10-20 ft) but still wiped out coastal settlements.

Some higher ground might’ve survived initially. If so, it didn’t last. The ocean kept rising. By 6500 BCE, complete submersion. Dogger Bank persisted as an island until roughly 5000 BCE before disappearing too.

All the forests, river valleys, hunting grounds, settlements—buried 15 to 30 meters (16-30 ft) deep now.

Mapping the Drowned World

Oil companies drilling in the North Sea created detailed seafloor surveys. Archaeologists figured out this same data could rebuild Doggerland digitally. So far, teams have mapped about 46,620 square kilometers (18,000 sq mi) of the submerged terrain. University of Bradford researchers covered 188,000 square kilometers (72,587 sq mi) in total. That’s larger than England and Scotland combined.

These reconstructions show ancient river systems, hills, coastlines from different periods, and marshland zones. Archaeologists can spot probable settlement locations and hunting territories. It’s essentially a major archaeological site that’s completely underwater.

Trawlers occasionally bring up artifacts. A stone blade here. A bone tool fragment there. Small additions to what we know.

Look at any North Sea map today. Oil rigs occupy ground where rivers once ran. Fishing boats work over submerged forests. People had complete lives there. They raised children, crafted tools, sat around fires, walked through mud and left prints that survived eight thousand years. Nobody then could’ve imagined petroleum geologists would reconstruct their homeland millennia later.

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