The Last Ice Age in Europe

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During the Ice Age, the sea level in Europe was significantly lower than it is today. The extensive ice sheets and glaciers that covered large parts of the continent locked up substantial amounts of water, causing the global sea level to drop.

The exact magnitude of the sea level decrease varied throughout the Ice Age, as it went through periods of fluctuation due to changes in ice volume. However, it is estimated that at the Last Glacial Maximum, which occurred approximately 21,000 years ago, the sea level was about 120 meters (394 feet) lower than present-day levels.

This lowered sea level exposed vast areas of the continental shelf, creating land bridges between various regions. For instance, the North Sea was primarily dry land during this time, and the British Isles were connected to the European mainland. The exposed land allowed humans and animals to migrate across these land bridges, contributing to the peopling of Europe.

Erratic boulders, till, drumlins, eskers, fjords, kettle lakes, moraines, etc., are typical features left behind by glaciers that make it possible to reconstruct the ice coverage during the last Ice Age.

Many of today’s countries were entirely covered by thick ice sheets for thousands of years. These countries include Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The big Scandinavian and British ice sheet extended south as far as northern Poland and Germany, covering almost all of Denmark. At the same time, in the eastern regions, the ice spread into the territory of Russia (about 300km west from Moscow) and some northern parts of Belarus. In the west, ice covered almost the entire British Isles, leaving just a relatively small ice-free zone in the south of the United Kingdom.

Today, about three-quarters of all the world’s freshwater (14,9 million km2) is stored in glaciers, while during the last Ice Age, it was about 3 times more (44,4 Million km3).

The climate of Europe during the Ice Age

The presence of the ice sheets altered the atmospheric circulation patterns. Cold air masses originating from the polar regions moved southward, leading to the dominance of arctic and polar air in Europe. This resulted in harsh winters and cooler temperatures throughout the year.

Precipitation patterns also changed during the Ice Age. The presence of ice sheets altered the moisture transport and affected precipitation distribution. In general, Europe experienced drier conditions compared to the present, as much of the available moisture was locked up in ice. However, in areas where moist air masses interacted with the topography, precipitation could occur, leading to the formation of glaciers and the development of large icefields in mountainous regions.

The climate variability during the Ice Age was also influenced by periodic shifts in global climate patterns known as Dansgaard-Oeschger events and Heinrich events. These events involved rapid climate changes, with alternating cold and relatively warmer periods occurring over a span of decades to centuries

The vegetation of Europe during the Ice Age

During the Ice Age, the vegetation of Europe underwent significant changes due to the colder climate and the presence of extensive ice sheets and glaciers. The distribution of plant communities was strongly influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture availability, soil conditions, and the presence of ice cover.

In general, the vegetation of Ice Age Europe was characterized by a dominance of cold-adapted plant species and the prevalence of tundra, steppe, and boreal forest ecosystems.

The northernmost parts of Europe were covered by tundra, a treeless landscape with low-growing vegetation adapted to cold and harsh conditions. Tundra vegetation consisted of grasses, mosses, lichens, and hardy flowering plants, like Arctic poppies and saxifrages.

Steppes, which are grassy plains with sparse tree cover, occurred in regions that were drier compared to the tundra. These grasslands supported grass species such as feather grass and various herbs. The steppe vegetation was more prevalent in eastern and southeastern Europe.

The boreal forest, also known as taiga, covered extensive areas of northern Europe. Dominated by coniferous trees like spruce, pine, and fir, the boreal forest was adapted to the colder and drier conditions. Understory vegetation included mosses, lichens, and shrubs like bilberries and lingonberries.

In regions with milder climates and more favorable conditions, deciduous trees like oak, birch, and elm were present. These woodlands and forests occurred in areas such as central Europe, where the climate was not as severe.

Along the river valleys, which provided milder microclimates and better moisture availability, there were gallery forests characterized by trees like willows, alders, and poplars.

The map below shows Ice Age biomes.

During the Ice Age, human populations in Europe lived as hunter-gatherers, adapting to challenging environmental conditions. The source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover. They migrated in search of food, following the movements of animals and utilizing available resources. They relied on hunting large mammals like mammoths, reindeer, and bison, as well as gathering plant materials such as berries and nuts. They built temporary shelters, used tools made from stone and bone, and created art and personal adornments, as evidenced by cave paintings and carved figurines found in archaeological sites.