Carl-August W. built an impressive series of Late Cretaceous maps using GPlates, GProjector, ArcGIS, Photoshop, Blender, Illustrator, and GIMP.

The sea that split North America stretched from the Arctic to the Gulf of Mexico, roughly a thousand kilometers across. Laramidia to the west, Appalachia to the east, and the two had been separated long enough that their dinosaur faunas went in completely different directions. In Laramidia, there were Tyrannosaurus, Triceratops, and other ceratopsids. Appalachia had Dryptosaurus as its largest predator, a more primitive tyrannosaur with proportionally longer arms, and no ceratopsids at all.

Where the European continent should be on the map, there’s a scattering of subtropical islands. The name Maastrichtian comes from Maastricht in the Netherlands, where Roman-era limestone quarries produced the first mosasaur skull in 1764. Most of what is now the Netherlands was seafloor. One of the Maastrichtian islands was near what is now Romania’s Hateg Basin. In 1895, twelve-year-old Ilona Nopcsa found bones while walking near the village of Sânpetru. Her brother Franz, eighteen at the time, brought them to Vienna and showed them to his professor of geology, Eduard Suess, who looked at them and said simply “Study them”. Nopcsa did. At twenty he published his first paper. He eventually noticed that the Hateg dinosaurs were too small (Magyarosaurus, a titanosaur sauropod, stopped at about 6 meters, while mainland relatives grew to 15-20). He proposed island dwarfism at a meeting in Vienna in November 1912. Bone histology confirmed him around 2010. He was also a spy, motorcycled across Europe, smuggled weapons into Albania, and in 1913 offered himself as a candidate for the Albanian throne.

The temperature data is more surprising at high latitudes than in the tropics. Indian Ocean surface temperatures reached 28 to 30°C (82.4 to 86°F), not dramatically different from now. At the paleolatitude of modern Antarctica, mean annual temperatures are estimated at 12 to 15°C (53.6 to 59°F). Arctic summers around 15°C (59°F). CO₂ ran somewhere between 1 and 6 times the pre-industrial 280 ppm baseline.

Flowering plants (angiosperms) were already the dominant group by species count, making up 50 to 80% of land plant genera. While flowering plants had become dominant, ferns remained a highly diverse and significant component of the understory and disturbed landscapes. Conifers, cycads, and early relatives of legumes, grasses, and proteas were all there.

South America and Africa had abelisaurids as their dominant large predators rather than tyrannosaurs. Massive titanosaurs like Dreadnoughtus and Alamosaurus were among the largest land animals of the time, following earlier giants like Argentinosaurus. Quetzalcoatlus northropi flew with a wingspan of 10 to 11 meters (33–36 ft). Mosasaurs and plesiosaurs ruled the seas, while small birds and mammals were already widespread.

An asteroid 10 to 15 kilometers (6 to 9 miles) across hit the Yucatán Peninsula 66 million years ago, leaving the Chicxulub crater at around 180 kilometers (112 miles) in diameter. The Deccan Traps had been erupting in India for hundreds of thousands of years before that. Scientists still argue about how much each contributed. About 75% of species disappeared, every non-avian dinosaur, pterosaur, mosasaur, plesiosaur, and ammonite among them.

The post The Earth 70 Million Years Ago appeared first on Vivid Maps.

The Arabian Peninsula before Islam was mostly polytheist. The Kaaba in Mecca was already a major pilgrimage site, but at the time it housed around 360 idols, one for each tribal deity, with Hubal at the center. Judaism and Christianity had both reached parts of Arabia, mostly in areas that bordered the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, but neither had any real hold over the interior.

In Persia Zoroastrianism had been the official faith of the Sassanid Empire for over four centuries when Arab armies defeated the Sassanids between 633 and 651 CE. Many Zoroastrians left for India rather than convert, and their descendants, the Parsis, are still there. There are now around 100-200 thousand Zoroastrians worldwide, a small number for a religion that was once the state faith of one of antiquity’s major empires.

Augustine of Hippo was from what is now northeastern Algeria. Tertullian, who coined the word “Trinity,” was from Carthage in modern Tunisia. They’re two of the most influential figures in Christian history, and both came from a region that’s now almost entirely Muslim. By the 5th century, North Africa was a major center of Christian life. The Arab conquests changed that over the following centuries, and by around the 11th century the last indigenous Christian communities in the Maghreb were gone.

In Egypt, the Coptic Church survived the Arab conquest of 641 CE and is still there, now counting around 12 million members, about 10% of the country’s population.

Before the Arab conquests, the Syriac Church had missionary networks reaching as far as China. In 635 CE, a Syriac monk named Alopen arrived in Chang’an and was received by Emperor Taizong, who invited the Christians to translate their sacred works for the imperial library. The real pressure on Syriac communities came from the 8th century onward (during the reign of ‘Abd al-Malik) rather than immediately after the Arab conquests, and over time those communities contracted significantly. Around 1.5 million people identify with Syriac Christianity today.

Roman Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and Hinduism were all established long before the 7th century, and the Arab conquests didn’t substantially reach their heartlands. Arab forces never made it to the Horn of Africa either, which is why the Ethiopian Orthodox Church survived intact and today counts around 60 million followers worldwide. Tracking Tengrism is more challenging because the shamanistic traditions of the steppe peoples largely converted to Islam in the 14th century, though slowly enough that many practices got folded into local Islamic customs rather than disappearing outright. Without Islam, it would likely still span much of Central Asia.

The Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries changed a lot of what you see on this map. Some religious communities survived them, like the Coptic Church. Most didn’t, at least not in any recognizable form. Arab polytheism is effectively gone. Zoroastrianism went from being the state religion of one of the ancient world’s major empires to having around 150 thousand adherents worldwide. North African Christianity simply vanished.

The post What Would the World’s Religious Map Look Like Without Islam? appeared first on Vivid Maps.

A Reddit map by Key_Neighborhood_542 assigns each city within the former duchy’s territory a single number: the years it spent under genuine Lithuanian governance, counting only periods of real independence and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth membership, starting from 1235 when King Mindaugas had unified the state clearly enough to leave solid historical evidence.

Kaunas leads at 618 years. During the interwar period, while Vilnius was held by Poland, Kaunas served as Lithuania’s provisional capital. Vilnius registers 596, though about 22 of those years are complicated. Lithuania claimed the city during that stretch but didn’t physically hold it, with Poland occupying it for 18 of them.

Then there’s modern Belarus. Polotsk registers 570 years. Navahrudak 560. Brest 476. Minsk 462.

Kyiv shows 235 years, and the end of that chapter had nothing to do with Muscovy. At the 1569 Lublin Union, Kyiv along with the Polesian region passed to Poland as part of the Commonwealth merger deal. A negotiating loss, not a military one.

Smolensk spent 172 years under Lithuanian rule.

And then there’s Odessa. Hacibey, the Black Sea port that became modern Odessa, was under Lithuanian control for 70 years. Klaipėda, Lithuania’s only current Baltic port, won back only in 1923 after years of post-WWI dispute, shows 53. A medieval Black Sea settlement that is now one of Ukraine’s largest cities has more Lithuanian years behind it than the port Lithuania currently uses.

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The map below, created by Reddit user vladgrinch using data from the International Institute for Strategic Studies, shows countries with larger active military personnel than the UK: 1900 vs. 2026.

The UK’s regular forces now number around 137,000 trained personnel, according to UK Ministry of Defence figures from October 2025. That places Britain below Vietnam (482,000), Egypt (438,500), and Myanmar (406,000) in raw troop numbers, among many others. Since 1945, the size of Britain’s regular armed forces has been in almost constant decline, as the empire that once needed all those soldiers wound down and defence budgets were cut repeatedly.

But troop numbers alone don’t capture what a military can actually do. Britain still ranks sixth in the world for defence spending according to SIPRI, ahead of France, Japan, and Saudi Arabia. A nuclear deterrent, two aircraft carriers, and a force designed for international deployment give the UK reach that most countries on that red map simply don’t have.

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The pale green covering roughly half the map is hay and forage. Not corn. Not soybeans. Hay.

The US runs one of the world’s largest cattle and dairy industries, and those animals need feed all through winter when pasture is gone. That demand adds up fast across dozens of states. Drought hit Texas, Oklahoma, and Colorado particularly hard in 2022, which pushed the national dry hay harvest down to 49.5 million acres (about 20 million hectares), the lowest figure recorded since 1907. Texas still came out ahead of every other state at nearly 4.2 million acres (about 1.7 million hectares), despite being more than 25% below its 2021 total. Missouri put up 3.18 million acres (about 1.3 million hectares) and Oklahoma 3 million (about 1.2 million hectares) in what was a difficult year for much of the southern Plains.

The situation in Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, and Indiana is different. That dark maroon block is corn, 79.2 million acres (about 32 million hectares) harvested for grain in 2022. Pink soybeans sit right alongside at roughly 86 million harvested acres (about 35 million hectares) the same year. These two rotate in the same fields season after season, which is why they share county borders so consistently across the map.

Most of those corn acres are not producing food for people. About 40% of domestic corn use goes to animal feed, with approximately 39% going to ethanol production. The portion reaching human food products is below 10%. 97% of domestic soybean meal goes into livestock and poultry feed as well. All three crops, hay, corn, and soybeans, are largely serving the same purpose at different stages of the same system. Most US cropland exists to feed animals, which then become the meat, dairy, and eggs on your plate.

Wheat grows across Kansas, stretches up through Montana and the Dakotas, and appears again in eastern Washington. West Texas goes dark green with cotton, which continues through the Mississippi Delta and into parts of the Southeast, while rice occupies counties along the Gulf Coast.

What draws the eye next is a small lilac cluster: the counties of the Willamette Valley in western Oregon. These counties supply virtually the entire US production of annual ryegrass, perennial ryegrass, bentgrass, and fine fescue across more than 400,000 statewide acres (about 162,000 hectares). The seed gets shipped to lawns, golf courses, and sports fields across the country and around the world. Linn County has carried the nickname Grass Seed Capital of the World since a farmer near the town of Tangent planted the first commercial ryegrass crop there in 1921. The grass under most American lawns, golf courses, and sports fields started its life there.

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Where this language family comes from

Celtic belongs to the Indo-European family, the group that also gave the world Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Persian, Russian, and English. Proto-Celtic separated from Proto-Indo-European around 1300 BCE and left no written record. What linguists know about it was pieced together by comparing the surviving daughter languages and working backward toward whatever they must have shared.

Those daughter languages eventually divided in two. The ones that developed on the European mainland are collectively called Continental Celtic: Gaulish, Lepontic, Celtiberian, Gallaecian, Noric, and Galatian. All of them disappeared. The ones that developed in the British Isles and Ireland, called Insular Celtic, are where the six surviving languages came from: Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish, and Breton.

How Celtic reached so much of the continent

Celtic-speaking peoples spread through most of the European continent from around the 5th century BC, eventually reaching the Black Sea, the Anatolian Peninsula, Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. There was no Celtic empire behind any of this. The spread followed trade routes and migration, propelled by the cultural prestige of the La Tène metalworking tradition, which from roughly 450 BC became a status marker across much of Europe. Skilled ironwork, warrior aristocracy, and language traveled together as an interconnected package. By 300 BC that package had reached from the Atlantic coast of Iberia all the way to central Turkey.

Why the continental languages eventually disappeared

After Caesar conquered Gaul between 58 and 50 BC, Latin was adopted quickly by the Gaulish aristocracy, since speaking it meant access to Roman political networks and patronage, and trilingualism was already noted in southern Gaul by the 1st century BC. Farmers and rural communities took a very different path. A language woven into daily life and local custom can outlast political conquest by centuries. Gaulish is thought to have gone extinct around the late 6th century, some 600 years after Caesar’s campaigns.

Ireland, which Rome never reached, stayed monolingual Celtic until the Norman incursions of the 13th century. Irish settlers moving into Scotland in the 3rd and 4th centuries eventually extinguished Pictish, permanently replaced by Gaelic by the 12th century. Anglo-Saxon settlers pushing into Britain from the 5th century forced Brittonic steadily westward. Welsh survived in Wales. Cornish lasted in Cornwall right through to the 18th century. Breton survived in Brittany because people from southwestern Britain had carried it there in the 5th and 6th centuries.

Six survivors

Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Breton have been spoken without interruption. Cornish and Manx each broke that chain: Cornish in the late 18th century and Manx in 1974. Both were brought back through years of determined community work, and today, a new generation is growing up with them as first languages.

The six divide into two branches. Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx share a common descent from Old Irish and form the Goidelic group. Welsh, Cornish, and Breton came from ancient Brittonic and form the Brittonic group. Some mutual intelligibility exists within the Goidelic group, particularly between the Scottish Gaelic of Islay and Argyll, Ulster Irish, and Manx. Welsh and Irish speakers find nothing mutually intelligible. The two branches have been developing independently for well over a thousand years.

Long before the Latin script arrived, Celtic languages were written using Ogham, a system of 25 characters cut as notches along a stem line. Around 500 of those inscriptions survive on stone, the oldest from the 4th century AD, found across Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and England.

How many speakers remain

In Ireland, Irish is compulsory in schools from early childhood right through to the final state exams, which means virtually every adult has spent years studying it. Using it daily is a different question. Most daily speakers live in rural Gaeltacht areas on the western coast, and only around 72,000 to 94,000 people actually use Irish on a daily basis, despite its status as a national language and an official EU language. Welsh occupies a noticeably different position. You hear Welsh on the streets of Cardiff and Swansea, not just in remote coastal villages. Welsh-medium school enrollment has grown steadily since the 1980s, and the total number of speakers has been rising rather than falling.

Before World War II, Breton was spoken by well over a million people across Brittany. Decades of active suppression in French schools brought that figure down to under a quarter of what it once was. Welsh is the only Celtic language UNESCO does not classify as endangered.

About 2 million people speak a Celtic language today, native and non-native speakers combined. Set against the 300 BC maps, that is a dramatic contraction of geographic ground. But Welsh gains speakers year on year. Cornish and Manx crossed from complete extinction to genuine first-language communities within a single human generation.

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In Bulgaria, 37% say earning money is the most important role of a man. In Poland, just 22% think it’s acceptable for men to cry. I mapped all of it from Special Eurobarometer 545.

Take that first question. Sweden: 95%. Poland: 22%. The EU average is 51%, meaning the continent is genuinely split on this. And nearly every other question in the survey produces the same geographic shape.

In the Netherlands, 3% see earning money as a man’s primary role and 2% see homemaking as a woman’s primary role. Bulgaria comes in at 37% and 35%. On whether men are naturally less competent at household tasks, Denmark records 3% and Bulgaria 28%.

On financial independence being equally important for both sexes, Poland lands at 40% and Sweden at 90%.

The communist period explains more of this than might initially seem obvious. Communist governments across Eastern Europe pushed women into the workforce at high rates. Female labor participation across much of the Eastern Bloc was genuinely substantial by the 1970s. But they left the household entirely alone. From the mid-1950s onward, state-ordained women’s organizations promoted a vision in which working women had to juggle their commitment to the workplace with their obligations toward the family, managing what became known as the “double burden.” The system encouraged women to hold full-time jobs while leaving domestic authority exactly where it had always been. The fall of those regimes and the economic difficulties of the 1990s did not lead to restructuring in most households.

Sweden and Denmark spent those same decades differently. Parental leave that fathers were expected to take, subsidized childcare, labor markets built around the assumption that women would work throughout their adult lives. Daily life organized that way, over enough decades, shifts what feels normal at home.

The countries on the conservative end of these maps (Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Slovakia) also share strong Orthodox or Catholic traditions. Norris and Inglehart documented a consistent link between religious conservatism and stronger gender role distinctions in Sacred and Secular (Amazon link). Those same countries also largely overlap with the former Eastern Bloc, so working out which factor carries more weight is genuinely difficult.

One question breaks from the geographic pattern. On whether feminism has gone too far, Cyprus leads at 35%, Slovenia follows at 29%, then Spain at 27%. Spain, which records some of the lowest scores in this survey on breadwinner expectations and household decision-making.

Spain is a different case. The country pushed through an unusually large amount of gender legislation in a short period, a sexual consent law in 2022, mandatory gender quotas for party lists in 2023, and various other reforms in between. Laura Nuño Gómez, a political scientist at King Juan Carlos University in Madrid, noted that in Spain “as progress has been faster, the opposition to gender equality policies has also been more intense and animated.” Vox, whose campaign was built substantially around opposing feminist policy, took 12.4% of the national vote in 2023. That political context is probably where the 27% comes from, not from the same conservatism you’d find in Bulgaria or Slovakia. Portugal, worth noting, scores conservatively on financial independence (46%) but records just 5% on this question, the lowest in the EU.

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This was the Last Glacial Maximum. The period spans roughly 26,500 to 19,000 years ago, with peak ice extent around 21,000 years BP. The Laurentide sheet covered most of Canada and pushed well into what is now the northern United States. In Europe the Fennoscandian sheet buried all of Scandinavia and most of Britain, with its southern edge running through what is now northern Germany and Poland. CO₂ in the atmosphere was about 180 parts per million, compared to 280 ppm before industrialization and over 420 ppm today. The air was also dramatically dustier than it is now: ice cores show concentrations 20 to 25 times higher than modern levels, blown off bare, vegetation-poor land by strong persistent winds.

The map below was made by @locoluis from the paleoclimate vegetation shapefile published by Nicolas Ray and Jonathan Adams in 2001. It covers the broad window of roughly 25,000 to 15,000 years before present.

The white areas with gray horizontal stripes on the world map above are ice sheets. Just south of the European ice comes polar and alpine desert — the zone covering the area where London is now located. Paris sits in the Steppe-tundra. Berlin is right at the ice margin.

In North America, open boreal woodland covered the Atlantic seaboard where temperate deciduous forest now stands. The interior of the continent was temperate steppe-grassland. The northern Pacific coast held forest steppe, while further south, across what is now California and the American Southwest, the reconstruction shows semi-arid temperate woodland and scrub.

In what is now the Amazon basin, the reconstruction shows two separate fragments of tropical rainforest, with tropical grassland and savanna between them. West African rainforests retreated into scattered patches, surrounded by tropical grassland. While the Sahara shows up as a tropical extreme desert. Australia’s interior, according to Ray and Adams climate reconstruction as tropical thorn scrub and scrub woodland, with tropical extreme desert across a significant area.

How cold was it?

The answer is that it depends on which study you consult, and the estimates have shifted as methods improved. A 2022 reconstruction by Annan, Hargreaves and Mauritsen in Climate of the Past puts global mean cooling at about 4.5°C below pre-industrial temperatures. Tierney et al. in Nature (2020) arrived closer to 6.1°C. Both teams combined climate model simulations with proxy records through data assimilation, and both are methodologically credible. The gap between their numbers comes mostly from differences in which model simulations they used as a starting point.

According to Seltzer et al., low-altitude land between about 45°S and 35°N cooled by 5.8 ± 0.6°C on average. At higher latitudes the numbers were considerably larger. Groundwater from an aquifer under the Paris basin points to local cooling of around 9°C relative to the Holocene.

What happened to biodiversity when the Ice Age ended?

From about 19,000 years ago, the warming picked up fast enough to transform the landscape. Grassland became forest. Bogs crept across country that had been open for millennia. For the large grazers this was a different kind of problem than cold had ever been — there simply wasn’t enough of the right ground left. By about 11,700 years ago roughly 64% of megafaunal genera were gone worldwide. North America lost 38 genera of mostly large mammals. Habitat loss was part of it, but when you look at where and when the losses happened across different continents, they follow human expansion more closely than any temperature curve.

Some animals had no trouble with any of it. Brown bears and wolves are at home in forest, so the change in vegetation barely registered for them. Musk oxen and reindeer kept going in whatever open ground was left. Wild boar, red deer, saiga antelopes, Arctic foxes — all pulled through. Horses did fine across Eurasia but had disappeared from the Americas by about 10,000 years ago. Smaller animals and birds shifted their ranges as the vegetation moved and mostly got on with it.

Oak, beech, and lime had been sitting out the cold in scattered refugia across Iberia, the Balkans, and the Caucasus — far enough south to stay viable. They didn’t rush back north. It took thousands of years, and the genetic record of that gradual recolonization is still there in European forests.

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Europe is where the numbers get genuinely hard to process. Germany and Spain have been below 1.5 for years. Italy too. South Korea recorded 0.72 in 2023. Pension systems, healthcare, military recruitment, economic growth — all of these are built on the assumption that the next generation will be at least as large as the current one. In several countries, that assumption quietly stopped being true a long time ago.

How does this happen? Cities, mostly. Once people move into urban areas, the economics of family size flip completely. A child raised in an apartment costs far more than one raised on a farm where they eventually help with the work. Women who pursue education and careers postpone having children, often into their thirties, and frequently end up with fewer than they originally planned.

Latin America and North America are not exempt from any of this. The map below shows the last year each country in the region had a fertility rate above 2.1.

Canada got there first. The country dropped below replacement in 1971, when most of its southern neighbors were nowhere near that point. Cuba was next, in 1977 — post-revolutionary Cuba invested heavily in women’s education and that showed up in the birth rate within a generation. Argentina reached the same point in 1998, Brazil in 2001, the US four years after that.

South America spread across several decades. Chile and Brazil were among the first, crossing in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Colombia reached the same point in 2007. After that the pace picked up — most of the Andean countries dropped below 2.1 within the last seven years, with Bolivia and Paraguay both crossing in 2023.

Central America came last. By 2023 even Guatemala had crossed, with Honduras right at that threshold now.

Haiti, Guyana, and French Guiana are still above 2.1. Lower urbanization, less access to education and healthcare — the same conditions that kept fertility higher elsewhere for longer.

Canada has been offsetting its low birth rate through immigration since roughly the 1980s. Several other countries in the hemisphere are now looking at the same demographic math and working out what their version of an answer looks like — or whether there is one.

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Paratethys had a whale. Cetotherium riabinini, 3 meters (10 feet) long, living entirely in landlocked brackish water far from any ocean. The lineage this animal belonged to would eventually produce some of the largest creatures that ever lived — but not here. This branch had been isolated for millions of years and had its own trajectory. Seals shared the water with it. On the surrounding wetlands and shoreline, Deinotherium giganteum moved through the vegetation, a prehistoric elephant larger than anything alive today, its tusks pointing downward rather than forward.

Around 9.6 million years ago a dry period set in, stayed for an exceptionally long time, and pulled water levels down 150 meters (490 feet). The lake split. The central basin, roughly where the Black Sea sits now, turned hypersaline as the water concentrated. The outer zones swung toward fresh water. These animals had spent millions of years shaped by Paratethys’s specific chemistry, and the lake they now lived in had become something foreign to them. Most didn’t make it through. Eventually wetter years returned, the water came back, and whatever had scraped through spread back out. Then another dry period hit. Then a third.

That played out three times across roughly two million years. Each time the lake recovered it recovered a bit less completely. Then between 7.9 and 7.65 million years ago came the worst of them. Water dropped 250 meters (820 feet), whatever was left turned hypersaline and toxic, and most of what had scraped through the earlier crashes didn’t get through this one. Wout Krijgsman of Utrecht University, one of the co-authors, reached for a film reference when describing what that landscape must have looked like: “a postapocalyptic prehistoric world, an aquatic version of the wastelands from Mad Max.”

After a wetter period around 6.7 million years ago opened a connection through the Aegean Sea, Paratethys drained away into what we now call the Caspian, the Black Sea, and the Aral Sea. Palcu’s team found that the worst periods in Paratethys’s history coincided with droughts in Arabia and forests disappearing from Spain.

Some of Paratethys’s mollusks survived everything the lake went through and were still living around the Caspian when Soviet engineers connected the Volga and Don rivers by canal in the 1950s. They caught rides on ships, eventually reaching the Great Lakes of North America, where native species have largely been pushed out. An ancient lake collapse, a Soviet canal, a biological crisis in Canada. Twelve million years apart, but connected.

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